Bible Encyclopedias
Music

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

mū´zik :

I. IMPORTANCE

1. The Sole Art Cultivated

2. A W ide Vocabulary of Musical Terms

3. Place in Social and Personal Life

4. Universal Language of Emotions

5. Use in Divine Service

6. Part at Religious Reformations

II. THEORY OF MUSIC

1. Technical Terms, 'alamoth, sheminith, selah

2. Not Necessarily Unimpressive

III. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

1. Strings: kinnor, nebhel, 'asor, gittith, shalishim, sabbekha'

2. Winds: 'ughabh, halil, nehiloth, mashrokitha', sumponyah, shophar, keren, hacocerah

3. Percussion: toph, meciltayim, celcelim, mena'an'im

LITERATURE

I. Its Importance

That the Hebrews were in ancient times, as they are at the present day, devoted to the study and practice of music is obvious to every reader of the Old Testament. The references to it are numerous, and are frequently of such a nature as to emphasize its importance. They occur not only in the Psalter, where we might expect them, but in the Historical Books and the Prophets, in narratives and in declamations of the loftiest meaning and most intense seriousness. And the conclusion drawn from a cursory glance is confirmed by a closer study.

1. The Sole Art Cultivated

The chief of these instruments were the kinnōr and nebhel (the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "the harp" and "the psaltery" or "viol"). They were used to accompany vocal music. In 1 Samuel 10:5 , Saul meets a band of prophets singing inspired strains to the music of the nebhel , "drum," "flute," and kinnōr . In the description of the removal of the ark, we are told that songs were sung with kinnōrōth , nebhālı̄m , etc. 2 Samuel 6:5 . Again, in various passages (1 Chronicles 15:16; 2 Chronicles 7:6 , etc.) we meet with the expression kelēshı̄r , i.e. instruments of, or suitable for accompanying, song. It is evident that only the flute and strings could render melodies. The music performed on these instruments seems to have been mainly of a joyful nature. It entered into all public and domestic festivities. In Psalm 81:2 , the kinnōr is called "pleasant," and Isaiah 24:8 speaks of the "joy" of the kinnōr . Very striking is the invocation Psalm 108:2 : the poet in a moment of exhilarations calls upon the two kelēshı̄r to echo and share his enthusiasm for Yahweh. Only once Isaiah 16:11 is the kinnōr associated with mourning, and Cheyne infers from this passage "the kinnōr was used at mourning ceremonies." But the inference is doubtful; the prophet is merely drawing a comparison between the trembling of the strings of the lyre and the agitation in his own bosom. Again, the Babylonian captives hang their kinnōr ōth on the willows in their dejection Psalm 137:2 , and the prophets Isaiah 24:8; Ezekiel 26:13 threaten that as a punishment for sin the sound of the kinnōr will cease.

(2) Materials

We have no exact information as to the materials of which these instruments were made. In 2 Samuel 6:5 the King James Version, mention is made of "instruments made of fir wood" (the English Revised Version "cypress"), but the text is probably corrupt, and the reading in 1 Chronicles 13:8 is preferable. According to 1 Kings 10:11 , Hiram's fleet brought from Ophir quantities of 'almūgh (2 Chronicles 2:8; 2 Chronicles 9:10 , 'algūm ) wood, from which, among other things, the kinnōr and nebhel were made. Probably this was red sandal-wood. Josephus (Ant. , VIII, iii) includes among articles made by Solomon for the temple nebhālı̄m and kinnōrōth of electrum. Whether we understand this to have been the mixed metal so named or amber, the frame of the instrument could not have been constructed of it. It may have been used for ornamentation.

We have no trace of metal strings being used by the ancients. The strings of the Hebrew ( minnı̄m ) may have consisted of gut. We read of sheep-gut being employed for the purpose in the Odyssey , xxi. 407. Vegetable fiber was also spun into strings. We need only add that bowed instruments were quite unknown; the strings were plucked with the fingers, or struck with a plectrum.

(a) The Kinnor

The Old Testament gives us no clue to the form or nature of the kinnōr , except that it was portable, comparatively light, and could be played while it was carried in processions or dances. The earliest authority to which we can refer on the subject is the Septuagint. While in some of the books kinnōr is rendered by kinnúra , or kinúra - evidently a transliteration - in others it is translated by kithara . We cannot discuss here the question of the trustworthiness of the Septuagint as an authority for Hebrew antiquities, but considering the conservatism of the East, especially in matters of ritual, it seems at least hasty to say offhand, as Wellhausen does, that by the date of its production the whole tradition of ancient music had been lost. The translation, at all events, supplies us with an instrument of which the Hebrews could hardly have been ignorant. The kithara , which in its general outlines resembled the lyre, consisted of a rectilinear-shaped sound box from which rose two arms, connected above by a crossbar; the strings ran down from the latter to the sound-box, to which, or to a bridge on which, they were attached.

The most ancient copy of a kithara in Egypt was found in a grave of the XII th Dynasty. It is carried by one of a company of immigrant captive Semites, who holds it close to his breast, striking the strings with a plectrum held in his right hand, and plucking them with the fingers of the left. The instrument is very primitive; it resembles a schoolboy's slate with the upper three-fourths of the slate broken out of the frame; but it nevertheless possesses the distinctive characteristics of the kithara . In a grave at Thebes of a somewhat later date, three players are depicted, one of whom plays a kithara , also primitive in form, but with slenderer arms. Gradually, as time advanced, the simple board-like frame assumed a shape more like that afterward elaborated by the Greeks. Numerous examples have been found in Asia Minor, but further developed, especially as regards the sound-box. It may be noted that, in the Assyrian monuments, the kithara is played along with the harp, as the kinnōr was with the nebhel .

The evidence furnished by Jewish coins must not be overlooked. Those stamped with representations of lyre-shaped instruments have been assigned to 142-135 BC, or to 66-70 AD. On one side we have a kithara - like instrument of 3 or more strings, with a sound-box resembling a kettle. It is true that these coins are of a late date, and the form of the instruments shown on them has obviously been modified by Greek taste, but so conservative a people as the Jews would hardly be likely to adopt an essentially foreign object for their coinage.

One objection raised by Wellhausen to the identification of the kithara with the kinnōr may be noted. Josephus undoubtedly says ( Ant. , VII, xii) that the kinnura was played with a plectrum, and in 1 Samuel 16:23 David plays the kinnōr "with his hand." But even if this excludes the use of the plectrum in the particular case, it need not be held to disprove the identity of kinnōr and kinnura . Both methods may have been in use. In paintings discovered at Herculaneum there are several instances of the lyre being played with the hand; and there is no reason for supposing that the Hebrews were restricted to one method of showing their skill, when we know that Greeks and Latins were not.

Since the ancient VSS , then, render kinnōr by kithara , and the kithara , though subsequently developed and beautified by the Greeks, was originally a Semitic instrument, it is exceedingly probable, as Riehm says, "that we have to regard the ancient Hebrew kinnōr , which is designated a kithara , as a still simpler form of the latter instrument. The stringed instruments on the Jewish coins are later, beautified forms of the kinnōr , intermediate stage Egyptian modifications represent the intermediate stage."

(b) The Nebhel

The nebhel has been identified with many instruments. The literal meaning of the word, "wine-skin," has suggested that it was the bagpipe! Others have thought that it was the lute, and this is supported by reference to the Egyptian nfr , which denotes a lute-like instrument frequently depicted on the monuments. The derivation of nbl from nfr is, however, now abandoned; and no long-necked instrument has been found depicted in the possession of a Semite. The kissar was favored by Pfeiffer. Its resonance-box is made of wood, and, the upper side, being covered tightly by a skin, closely resembles a drum. From this rise two arms, connected toward the top by a crossbar; and to the latter the strings are attached. The kissar has, however, only 5 strings, as opposed to 12 ascribed by Josephus to the nebhel , and the soundbox, instead of being above, as stated by the Fathers, is situated below the strings.

The supposition that the nebhel was a dulcimer is not without some justification. The dulcimer was well known in the East. An extremely interesting and important bas-relief in the palace at Kouyunjik represents a company of 28 musicians, of whom 11 are instrumentalists and 15 singers. The procession is headed by 5 men, 3 carrying harps, one a double flute, and one a dulcimer. Two of the harpists and the dulcimer-player appear to be dancing or skipping. Then follow 6 women; 4 have harps, one a double flute, and one a small drum which is fixed upright at the belt, and is played with the fingers of both hands. Besides the players, we see 15 singers, 9 being children, who clap their hands to mark the rhythm. One of the women is holding her throat, perhaps to produce the shrill vibrate affected by Persian and Arabian women at the present day. The dulcimer in this picture has been regarded by several Orientalists as the nebhel . Wettstein, e.g., says "This instrument can fairly be so designated, if the statement of so many witnesses is correct, that nablium and psaltērium are one and the same thing. For the latter corresponds to the Arabic santir , which is derived from the Hebrew pesantērı̄n , a transliteration of the Greek psaltḗrion ." And the santir is a kind of dulcimer.

This is not conclusive. The word psaltērion was not always restricted to a particular instrument, but sometimes embraced a whole class of stringed instruments. Ovid also regarded the nabla as a harp, not a dulcimer, when he said ( Ars Am . iii. 329): "Learn to sweep the pleasant nabla with both hands." And, lastly, Josephus tells us ( Ant. , VII, xii) that the nebhel was played without a plectrum. The translation of nebhel by psaltērion does not, therefore, shut us up to the conclusion that it was a dulcimer; on the contrary, it rather leads to the belief that it was a harp.

Harps of various sizes are very numerous on the Egyptian monuments. There is the large and elaborate kind with a well-developed sound-box, that served also as a pediment, at its base. This could not be the nebhel , which, as we have seen, was early portable. Then we have a variety of smear instruments that, while light and easily carried, would scarcely have been sonorous enough for the work assigned to the nebhel in the temple services. Berries, the more we learn of the relations of Egypt and Israel, the more dearly do we perceive how little the latter was influenced by the former. But the evidence of the Fathers, which need not be disregarded in a matter of this kind, is decisive against Egyptian harps of every shape and size. These have without exception the sound-box at the base, and Augustine (on Psalm 42:1-11 ) says expressly that the psaltērium had its sound-box above. This is confirmed by statements of Jerome, Isidore, and others, who contrast two classes of instruments according to the position above or below of the sound-box, Jerome, further, likens the nebhel to the captial Greek letter delta.

All the evidence points to the nebhel having been the Assyrian harp, of which we have numerous examples in the ruins. We have already referred at length to the bas-relief at Kouyunjik in which it is played by 3 men and 4 women. It is portable, triangular, or, roughly, delta-shaped; it has a sound-box above that slants upward away from the player, and a horizontal bar to which the strings are attached about three-fourths of their length down. The number of the strings on the Assyrian harp ranges from 16 upward, but there may quite well have been fewer in some cases.

(c) Nebhel 'Asor

In Psalm 33:2; Psalm 144:9 , "the psaltery of ten strings" is given as the rendering of nebhel ‛āsōr ; while in Psalm 91:3 ‛āsōr is translated "instrument of ten strings." No doubt, as we have just said above, there were harps of less and greater compass - the mention of the number of strings in two or three instances does not necessarily imply different kinds of harps.

(d) Gittith

The word gittı̄th is found in the titles of Psalm 8:1-9 , 81, Psalm 84:1-12 . It is a feminine adjective derived from Gath, but its meaning is quite uncertain. It has been explained to denote (i) some Gittite instrument; the Targum, on Psalm 8:1-9 , gives "on the kithara which was brought from Gath"; or (ii) a melody or march popular in Gath. The Septuagint renders "concerning the vintage," and may have regarded these psalms as having been sung to a popular melody. See above.

(e) The Shalishim

Shālı̄shı̄m occurs in 1 Samuel 18:6 , where it is rendered "instruments of music," the Revised Version margin "triangles, or three stringed instruments." The word seems from the context to represent a musical instrument of some sort, but which is very uncertain. Etymology points to a term involving the number three. The small triangular harp, or trigon, has been suggested, but it would hardly have made its presence felt among a number of drums or tambourines. If the shālı̄shı̄m was a harp, it might very well be the nebhel , which was also triangular. There is no evidence that the triangle was used by Semitic people, or we might have taken it to be the instrument referred to. If it was a percussion instrument, it might possibly be a three-ringed or three-stringed sistrum .

(f) The Sabbekha'

Among the instruments mentioned in Daniel 3:5 , Daniel 3:7 , Daniel 3:10 occurs the ṣabbekhā' translated in the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) "sackbut," i.e. a trombone, why, it is impossible to say. The Septuagint renders the word by sambū́kē , and this is an instrument frequently mentioned by Greek and Latin writers. Though it is nowhere described, it was no doubt a harp, probably of high pitch. It was a favorite of dissolute women, and we frequently see in their hands in mural pictures a small triangular harp, possibly of a higher range than the trigon.

(g) Neghinoth

The word neghı̄nōth occurs in the title of 6 psalms, and in the singular in two others; it is also found elsewhere in the Old Testament. Derived from naghan, "to touch," especially to play on a stringed instrument (compare Psalm 68:25 , where the players, nōghenı̄m , are contrasted with the singers, shārı̄m ), it evidently means stringed instruments in general.

2. Winds

The first mention of a wind instrument occurs in Genesis 4:21 , where we are told that Jubal was the "father of all such as handle the harp and pipe." The Hebrew word here translated "pipe" is ‛ūghābh . It occurs in 3 other places: Job 21:12; Job 30:31; Psalm 150:4 . In the Hebrew version of Daniel 3:5 it is given as the rendering of sumpōnyāh , i.e. "bagpipe." Jerome translations by organon . The ‛ūghābh was probably a primitive shepherd's pipe or panpipe, though some take it as a general term for instruments of the flute kind, a meaning that suits all the passages cited.

(2) The Halil

The ḥālı̄l is first mentioned in 1 Samuel 10:5 , where it is played by members of the band of prophets. It was used 1 Kings 1:40 at Solomon's accession to the throne; its strains added to the exhilaration of convivial parties Isaiah 5:12 , accompanied worshippers on their joyous march the sanctuary Isaiah 30:29 , or, in turn, echoed the feelings of mourners Jeremiah 48:36 . In 1 Macc 3:45, one of the features of the desolation of the temple consisted in the cessation of the sound of the pipe. From this we see that Ewald's assertion that the flute took no part in the music of the temple is incorrect, at least for the Second the Temple.

As we should expect from the simplicity of its construction, and the commonness of its material, the flute or pipe was the most ancient and most widely popular of all musical instruments.

Reeds, cane, bone, afterward ivory, were the materials; it was the easiest thing in the world to drill out the center, to pierce a few holes in the rind or bark, and, for the mouthpiece, to compress the tube at one end. The simple rustic pattern was soon improved upon. Of course, nothing like the modern flute with its complicated mechanism was ever achieved, but, especially on the Egyptian monuments, a variety of patterns is found. There we see the obliquely held flute, evidently played, like the Arabic nay, by blowing through a very slight paring of the lips against the edge of the orifice of the tube. Besides this, there are double flutes, which, though apparently an advance on the single flute, are very ancient. These double flutes are either of equal or unequal length, and are connected near the mouth by a piece of leather, or enter the frame of the mouthpiece.

Though the flutes of the East and West resembled each other more closely than the strings, it is to the Assyrian monuments that we must turn for the prototypes of the ḥālı̄l . The Greeks, as their myths show, regarded Asia Minor as the birthplace of the flute, and no doubt the Hebrews brought it with them from their Assyrian home. In the Kouyunjik bas-relief we see players performing on the double flute. It is apparently furnished with a beaked mouthpiece; like that of the clarinet or flageolet. We cannot determine whether the Israelites used the flute with a mouthpiece, or one like the nay ; and it is futile to guess. It is enough to say that they had opportunities of becoming acquainted with both kinds, and may have adopted both.

(3) Nehiloth

Neḥı̄lōth occurs only in the title of Psalm 5:1-12 . The context suggests that it is a musical term, and we explain negı̄nōth as a general term for strings, this word may comprehend the wood-winds. the Revised Version margin renders "wind instruments."

(4) Nekebh

In Ezekiel 28:13 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American), neḳābhı̄m is rendered pipes. This translation is supported by Fetis: the double flute; Ambros: large flutes; and by Jahn: the nay or Arab flute. It is now, however abandoned, and Jerome's explanation that neḳebh means the "setting" of precious stones is generally adopted.

(5) The Mashrokitha'

Mashrōḳı̄thā' , found in Daniel 3:5 , etc., is also referred to the wood-winds. The word is derived from shāraḳ , "to hiss" (compare Isaiah 5:26 , where God hisses to summon the Gentiles). The Septuagint translates súrigx or panpipes, and this is most probably the meaning.

(6) The Sumponyah

Ṣūmpōnyāh (in Chaldaic sumponia) is another name for a musical instrument found in Daniel 3:5 , etc. It is generally supposed to have been the bagpipe, an instrument that at one time was exceedingly popular, even among highly civilized peoples. Nero is said to have been desirous of renown as a piper.

(7) The Shophar Keren

The shōphar was a trumpet, curved at the end like a horn ( ḳeren ), and no doubt originally was a horn. The two words shōphar and ḳeren are used synonymously in Joshua 6:4-5 , where we read shōphār ha -yōbhelı̄m and ḳeren ha -yōbhēl . With regard to the meaning of ha -yōbhēl , there is some difference of opinion. The Revised Version (British and American) renders in text "ram's horn," in the margin "jubilee." The former depends on a statement in the Talmud that yōbhēl is Arabic for "ram's horn," but no trace of such a word has been found in Arabic. A suggestion of Pfeiffer's that yōbhēl does not designate the instrument, but the manner of blowing, is advocated by J. Weiss. It gives a good sense in the passages in which yobhel occurs in connection with shōphār or ḳeren . Thus in Joshua 6:5 , we would translate, "when the priests blow triumph on the horn."

The shōphār was used in early times chiefly, perhaps exclusively, for warlike purposes. It gave the signal "to arms" Judges 6:34; 1 Samuel 13:3; 2 Samuel 20:1; warned of the approach of the enemy Amos 3:6; Ezekiel 33:6; Jeremiah 4:5; Jeremiah 6:1; was heard throughout a battle (Amos 2:2 , etc.); and sounded the recall 2 Samuel 2:28 . Afterward it played an important part in connection with religion. It was blown at the proclamation of the Law (Exodus 19:13 , etc.); and at the opening of the Year of Jubilee Leviticus 25:9; heralded the approach of the Ark 2 Samuel 6:15; hailed a new king 2 Samuel 15:10; and is prophetically associated with the Divine judgment and restoration of the chosen people from captivity (Isaiah 18:3 , and often).

(8) The Hacoceroth

We are told (Numbers 10:2 ff) that Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets which should serve to summon the people to the door of the tabernacle; give the signal for breaking up the camp; or call to arms. These instruments were the hăcōcerōth , which differed from the shōphār in that they were straight, not curved, were always made of metal, and were only blown by the priests. They are shown on the Arch of Titus and on Jewish coins, and are described by Josephus (Ant. , III, xii, 6). The latter says: "In length it was not quite a yard. It was composed of a narrow tube somewhat thicker than a flute, widened slightly at the mouth to catch the breath, and ended in the form of a bell, like the common trumpets."

3. Percussion Instruments

The principal percussion instrument, the tōph , is represented in English Versions of the Bible by "tabret" and "timbre," two words of different origin. "Tabret" is derived from Arabic tanbūr , the name of a sort of mandolin. "Timbre" comes from Latin-Greek tympanum , through the French timbre , a small tambourine. The Arabs of today possess an instrument called the duf , a name that corresponds to the Hebrew tōph . The duf is a circle of thin wood 11 inches in diameter and 2 inches in depth. Over this is tightly stretched a piece of skim, and in the wood are 5 openings in which thin metal disks are hung loosely; these jingle when the duf is struck by the hand. The tōph probably resembled the duf .

Other drums are shown on the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. In the Kouyunjik bas-relief the second last performer beats with his hands a small, barrel-like drum fixed at his waist. In the Old Testament the drum is used on festive occasions; it is not mentioned in connection with Divine service. It was generally played by women, and marked the time at dances or processions Exodus 15:20; Judges 11:34; 1 Samuel 18:6; Jeremiah 31:4; Psalm 150:4 . At banquets Isaiah 24:8; Isaiah 30:32; Job 21:12 and at marriages (1 Macc 9:39) it accompanied the kinnōr and nebhel . In solemn processions it was also occasionally played by men.

(2) Meciltayim, Celcelim

In 1 Chronicles 15:19 we read that "Heman, Asaph, and Ethan, were appointed, with cymbals of brass to sound aloud." These cymbals are the meciltayim (in two places celcelı̄m ). They were very popular in Egypt. A pair made of copper and silver has been found in a grave in Thebes. They are about 5 inches in diameter and have handles fixed in the center. In the Kouyunjik bas-relief we see cymbals of another pattern. These are conical, and provided with handles.

Cylindrical staves slightly bent at one end were also used in Egyptian processions. Villoteau, quoted by J. Weiss, describes a bas-relief in which three musicians are seen, of whom one plays the harp, a second the double flute, while a third appears to be marking time by striking two short rods together; this was a method of conducting practiced regularly by other ancient nations.

(3) Mena'an'im

Lastly in 2 Samuel 6:5 we meet with a word that occurs nowhere else, and whose meaning is quite uncertain. the King James Version translates "cornets," the Revised Version (British and American) "castanets," and in the margin "sistra." The mena‛an‛ı̄m may have been the sistrum , an instrument formed of two thin, longish plates, bent together at the top so as to form an oval frame, and supplied with a handle at the lower end. One or more bars were fixed across this frame, and rings or disks loosely strung on these made a jingling noise when the instrument was shaken. This interpretation is supported by the derivation of the word, the Vulgate, and the rabbins.

Literature

Pfeiffer, Uber die Musik der alten Hebraer ; Saalschutz, Form der heb. Poesie , etc.; Leyrer in Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche ; Riehm, Handwort. des bibl. Alterthums ; Histories of Music by Fetis, Ambros, Rowbotham, Naumann, and Chappell; Wilkinson, Ancient Egypt ; Wettstein in Del. Commentary on Isaiah ; Lane, Modern Egyptians ; Stainer, The Music of the Bible ; Edersheim, The Temple , etc.; Wellhausen, "The Pss" in Polychrome Bible ; Benzinger, Hebraische Archaologie (Benzinger; Nowack); Nowack, Hebraische Archaologie (Benzinger; Nowack); J. Weiss, Die mus. Instr. des Altes Testament ; C. Engel, Music of the Most Ancient Nations ; Vigoureux, Les instruments de musique de la Bible ; Driver, Joel and Amos ; Cornill, Music in the Old Testament ; and the various Bible Dictionaries.