(מְצָד , metsad', Isaiah 23:16; usually rendered " stronghold"), a fortress on a rocky eminence, such as those-to which David resorted for safety from Saul (1 Samuel 23:14); especially a "castle" or acropolis, as of Mount Zion (1 Chronicles 11:7). (See FORT).
In ancient times every city was located upon a naturally strong position, (See CITY); (See HILL), and served itself for a stronghold (עַיר בְּצוּרָה, עַיר הִמַּבְצָר ); yet in the period before;he exile among the Hebrews particular strategic points, especially on the frontier and in low and level tracts, were more strongly and systematically fortified (1 Kings 15:17; 1 Kings 15:22; 2 Chronicles 8:3; 2 Chronicles 11:5 sq.; 2 Chronicles 14:6 sq.; 2 Chronicles 26:6; 2 Chronicles 27:4), in anticipation of sieges (2 Chronicles 17:2), which, by reason of the more strenuous warfare, still oftener took place in post-exilian times (see 1 Maccabees 4:61; 1 Maccabees 12:35; 1 Maccabees 13:30; 1 Maccabees 14:33 sq. [1 Maccabees 15:39]), when the residences of Palestine were distributed in citadels, walled towns, and open villages. First of all, strongholds were surrounded by one or more (2 Chronicles 32:5) walls (חוֹמָה ), which were sometimes very thick (Jeremiah 51:58), and were furnished with battlements (פַּנּוֹת, 2 Chronicles 26:15; Zephaniah 1:16; or שְׁמָשׁוֹה , Isaiah 54:12), parapet, and towers (מַגְדָּלַים, 2 Chronicles 14:7; 2 Chronicles 32:5; 1 Maccabees 5:65; comp. Ezekiel 26:4; Ezekiel 27:11; Jeremiah 51:12; Zephaniah 2:14; Judith 1:3), and were closed by powerful (in Babylon iron-bound, Isaiah 45:2; Herod. 1:179) and strictly guarded (1 Kings 4:13) gates (q.v.). Over these last were placed watch-towers (2 Samuel 13:34; 2 Samuel 18:24; 2 Samuel 18:33; 2 Kings 9:17; 2 Chronicles 26:9; comp. Homer, II. 3:145, 154). See, generally, 2 Chronicles 14:7. Around the wall lay the חֵיל (2 Samuel 20:15; Isaiah 26:1; Nahum 3:8; 1 Kings 21:23), apparently a moat with a rampart, but according to Kimchi a small outer wall (בִּי שׁוּרָה ). (See TRENCH).
There were also watch-towers and forts (בַּירָנַיּוֹת ) in the open field (2 Kings 18:8, 2 Chronicles 27:4), as well as castles in and at the cities for a final refuge (Judges 9:51 sq.). The most important fortress of Palestine in all ancient times was Jerusalem (q.v.). Other strong castles, especially for the protection of the borders, were, in the closing period of Jewish history, Alexandrium (Josephus, Ant. 13:16, 3), Machaerus, Masada, Hyrcania (comp. Josephus, Ant. 13:16), Herodium (ib. 15:9, 4; War, 1:21, 10), etc. They were usually located on hills (Ant. 14:6, 2). Caves and chasms in rocks were the first natural fastnesses (Judges 9:2). (See CAVE).
The reduction (comp. צור, נצר ) of strong places, to which the inhabitants retreated on the invasion of an enemy (Jeremiah 8:14), began, after a demand to capitulate (Deuteronomy 20:10; comp. 2 Kings 18:17 sq.), with the demarcation of a line of circumvolution (בָּנָה מָצוֹר, Ecclesiastes 9:14; בָּנָה דָיֵק, 2 Kings 25:1; Jeremiah 6:6; Jeremiah 52:4; Ezekiel 4:2; Ezekiel 17:17, etc.), and throwing up a bank (שׁ 4פִךְ סוֹלְלָה, 2 Samuel 20:15; 2 Kings 19:32; Isaiah 27:33; Habakkuk 1:10; Jeremiah 6:6; Ezekiel 4:2; Ezekiel 17:17; Ezekiel 26:8; 1 Maccabees 11:20; 1 Maccabees 13:43; comp. Josephus, Ant. 13:10, 2), and next proceeded by the employment of beleaguering engines (μηχαναί, 1 Mace. 11:20, i.e., battering-rams,
כָּרַים, Ezekiel 4:2; Ezekiel 21:27; comp. Josephus, War, 3:9; Vitruv. 10:19). with which a breach was effected (Ezekiel 21:27. A description of the customary Roman machine obsidionales, which Titus used-but for a long time in vain-ins the siege of Jerusalem [Josephus, War, 5:6, 2 sq.; 9, 2; 6:2, 3, etc.], is given by Ammian. Marcel. 23:4. On the Roman aries especially, see Josephus, War, 3:7, 19). A simpler operation was to set the fort on fire, and thus destroy at once both it and the besieged (Judges 9:49). As an example of undermining the walls, Jeremiah 51:58 is adduced only by a gloss in the Sept. and Vulg.; in later times this process becomes clearer (Josephus. War, 2:17, 8; comp. Dio Cass. 69, 12; Veget. Mil. 4:24). The demolition of the aqueducts is once mentioned (Judith 7:6). For defence the besieged were accustomed not only to shoot darts from the walls (2 Samuel 11:24), but also to hurl large stones and beams (Judges 9:53; 2 Samuel 11:21; Josephus War, 5:3, 3; 6, 3), and even to pour down boiling oil (Josephus, War, 3:7, 28); in later times they used slinging- machines (חַשַּׁבֹנוֹת, 2 Chronicles 26:15; Dio Cass. 66:41). Also by skilfully. managed sorties, which were disguised by mines (Josephus, Ant. 14:16, 2; War, 5:11, 4, etc.), they strove (especially by burning the siege- works) to break the siege (1 Maccabees 6:3; Josephus, War, 5:6, 6; 11, 5; 6;, 6, 4), and for this purpose they watched the enemy by sentinels posted on the walls (Josephus, War, 5:2, 5).
The Israelites were enjoined to spare fruit- trees when they laid siege to a city (Deuteronomy 20:19 sq.; yet see 2 Kings 3:25; comp. Michaelis, A Mos. Recht, 1:378 sq.). The beleaguering of strongholds was sometimes carried on for a long time (so Hyrcanus was able to reduce Samaria only after an investment of a whole year, Josephus, Ant. 13:10, 3), and brought upon the besieged (even when they had provisioned themselves beforehand, 1 Maccabees 13:3) so severe a famine (2 Kings 6:25 sq.; 1 Maccabees 6:53 sq. — but of a lack of water in besieged places there is seldom any mention [see Josephus, War, 3:7, 12; Ant. 14:14, 6], probably owing to the copious cisterns usually at hand) that they were often obliged to resort to very unusual (comp. Judith 11:11) and even nauseous means of subsistence (2 Kings 6:25; 2 Kings 6:29; 2 Kings 18:27; Lamentations 4:10; Josephus, Ant. 13:10, 2; War, 5:10, 3; 13, 7; 6:3, 3; comp. Barhebr. Chronicles pages 149, 488). But the garrison sometimes contrived ingeniously to conceal from the besiegers the food and provisions brought into the city (Josephus, War, 3:7,12). Obstinate fortresses were taken by storm (comp. 1 Mace. 5:51), and the houses were razed to the ground (Judges 9:45; 1 Maccabees 5:52; Josephus, Ant. 13:10, 3. Occasionally the plough was passed over the site of a captured town laid in ashes, Horace, Od. 1:16, 21; Senec. Clement. 1:26; but Micah 3:12 has no such allusion), the inhabitants massacred, manacled, and reduced to slavery (Judges 1:25; 1 Maccabees 5:52; comp. 2 Maccabees 5:13 sq.; 2 Maccabees 10:17; 2 Maccabees 10:23). (See SIEGE). On the other hand, the enemy usually spared such places as surrendered (1 Maccabees 13:43 sq.). Citadels which had never been captured were called in Oriental phrase virgins (see Gesenius, Jesa. 1:736). (See FORTIFICATION).