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Bible Dictionaries
Dress
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
or DRESS . The numerous synonyms for ‘dress’ to be found in our EV [Note: English Version.] ‘apparel,’ ‘attire,’ ‘clothes,’ ‘raiment,’ ‘garments,’ etc. fairly reflect a similar wealth of terminology in the original Hebrew and Greek, more especially the former. As regards the particular articles of dress, the identification of these is in many cases rendered almost impossible for the English reader by the curious lack of consistency in the renderings of the translators, illustrations of which will be met with again and again in this article. For this and other reasons it will be necessary to have recourse to transliteration as the only certain means of distinguishing the various garments to be discussed.
1. Materials . Scripture and anthropology are in agreement as to the great antiquity of the skins of animals, wild and domesticated, as dress material ( Genesis 3:21 ‘coats of skin’; cf. for later times, Hebrews 11:37 ). The favourite materials in Palestine, however, were wool and flax ( Proverbs 31:13 ). The finest quality of linen was probably an importation from Egypt (see Linen). Goats’ hair and camels’ hair supplied the materials for coarser fabrics. The first certain mention of silk is in Revelation 18:12 , for the meaning of the word so rendered in Ezekiel 16:10; Ezekiel 16:13 is doubtful, and the silk of Proverbs 31:22 (AV [Note: Authorized Version.] ) is really ‘fine linen’ as in RV [Note: Revised Version.] .
2. Under Garments . ( a ) The oldest and most widely distributed of all the articles of human apparel is the loin-cloth (Heb. ’çzôr ), originally a strip of skin or cloth wrapped round the loins and fastened with a knot. Among the Hebrews in historical times it had been displaced in ordinary life by the shirt or tunic (see below). The loin-cloth or waist-cloth, however, is found in a number of interesting survivals in OT, where it is unfortunately hidden from the English reader by the translation ‘ girdle ,’ a term which should be reserved for an entirely different article of dress (see § 3 ). The universal sign of mourning, for example, was the ‘girding’ of the waist with an ’çzôr of hair-cloth (EV [Note: English Version.] ‘sackcloth’). Certain of the prophets, again, as exponents of the simple life, wore the waist-cloth as their only under garment, such as Elijah, who ‘was girt about with a loin-cloth (EV [Note: English Version.] ‘girdle’) of leather’ ( 2 Kings 1:8 ), and John the Baptist ( Matthew 3:4 , Mark 1:6 ). Isaiah on one occasion wore an ’çzôr of hair-cloth ( Isaiah 20:2 ), and Jeremiah on another occasion one of linen ( Jeremiah 13:1 ff.).
The noun and the cognate verb are frequently used in figurative senses, the point of which is lost unless it is remembered that the waist-cloth was always worn next the skin, as e.g. Jeremiah 13:11 , Isaiah 11:5 , the figure in the latter case signifying that righteousness and faithfulness are essential and inseparable elements in the character of the Messianic ‘Shoot.’
( b ) The aprons of Acts 19:12 were the Roman semicinctium , a short waist-cloth worn specially by slaves and workmen (see illust. in Rich, Dict. of Rom. and Gr. Antiq., s.v. ).
( c ) In early times the priests wore a waist-cloth of linen, which bore the special name of the ephod ( 1 Samuel 2:18 ), and which the incident recorded in 2 Samuel 6:14 ff. David, as priest, dancing before the ark shows to have been of the nature of a short kilt. By the Priests’ Code, however, the priests were required to wear the under garment described under Breeches. See, further, Hosen.
( d ) In OT, as has been said, the everyday under garment of all classes save for certain individuals or on special occasions is the shirt or tunic ( kuttoneth , a term which reappears in Greek as chitôn , and probably in Latin as tunica ). The uniform rendering of EV [Note: English Version.] is coat, only John 19:23 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ‘tunic’ A familiar Assyrian sculpture, representing the siege and capture of Lachish by Sennacherib, shows the Jewish captives, male and female alike, dressed in a moderately tight garment fitting close to the neck (cf. Job 30:18 ) and reaching almost to the ankles, which must represent the kuttoneth of the period as worn in towns. That of the peasantry and of most workmen was probably both looser and shorter, resembling in these respects its modern representative, the kamees (Lat. camisia , our ‘chemise’) of the Syrian fellahin.
As regards sleeves , which are not expressly mentioned in OT but see RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] at Genesis 37:3 (Joseph) and 2 Samuel 13:18 (Tamar) three modes are found. An early Egyptian representation of a group of Semitic traders ( c [Note: circa, about.] . b.c. 2000) shows a coloured sleeveless tunic, which fastens on the left shoulder, leaving the right shoulder bare. The Lachish tunics, above mentioned, have short sleeves reaching half-way to the elbows. This probably represents the prevailing type of tunic among the Hebrews of the earlier period at least, since a third variety, fitted with long and wide sleeves and reaching to the ground, was evidently restricted to the upper and wealthier classes. This is the ‘tunic of ( i.e. reaching to) palms and soles’ worn by Joseph and the royal princess Tamar (see above), more familiar as the ‘ coat of many (or diverse) colours ,’ a rendering which represents a now generally abandoned tradition. In Josephus’ day the long white linen tunic, which was the chief garment of the ordinary priesthood, had sleeves which for practical reasons were tied to the arms (Jos. [Note: Josephus.] Ant . III. vii. 2). By this time, also, it had become usual even among the lower ranks of the people to wear an under tunic or real shirt ( ib. XVII. v. 7; Mishna, passim , where this garment is named châlûk ). In this case the upper tunic, the kuttoneth proper, would be taken off at night ( Song of Solomon 5:3 ).
The ordinary tunic was made in at least three ways. (1) It might consist of two similar pieces of woollen or linen cloth cut from a larger web, which were sewed together along the sides and top. (2) The material for a single tunic might be woven on the loom, and afterwards put together without cutting, in the manner of the Egyptian tunics described and figured in Smith’s Dict. of Gr. and Rom. Antiq . 3 s.v. ‘Tunica’ (ii. 904). (3) As we know from the description of the chitôn worn by our Lord at the time of His Passion ( John 19:23 ), and from other sources, a third variety was woven ‘without seam’ on a special loom (see Spinning and Weaving) and required no further adjustment.
The garment intended by the ‘coats’ of Daniel 3:21; Daniel 3:27 (AV [Note: Authorized Version.] ) is uncertain. Most recent authorities favour mantles (so AVm [Note: Authorized Version margin.]; RV [Note: Revised Version.] has ‘hosen,’ wh. see). For the ‘coat of mail’ see Armour, 2 (c).
3. The Girdle . Almost as indispensable as the tunic was the girdle , which varied in material and workmanship from a simple rope ( Isaiah 3:24 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ) to the rich and elaborate waist-belt of the priests, and the ‘golden girdles’ of Revelation 1:13; Revelation 15:6 . Usually it consisted of a long strip of cloth, folded several times and wound round the waist above the tunic, with or without the ends hanging down in front. When work or a journey was in contemplation, the girdle was put on, and part of the tunic drawn up till it hung over in folds. Hence this operation of ‘girding the loins’ became a figure for energetic action. The girdle served also as a sword-belt ( 2 Samuel 20:8 ); through it was stuck the writer’s inkhorn ( Ezekiel 9:3; Ezekiel 9:11 ), while its folds served as a purse ( Matthew 10:9 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ). The special priests’ girdle, termed ’abnçt ( Exodus 28:4 and oft.), was a richly embroidered sash wound several times round the waist, according to Josephus, and tied in front, the ends falling to the ankles.
4. Upper Garments . While the kuttoneth or tunic was the garment in which the work of the day was done (see Matthew 24:18 RV [Note: Revised Version.] , Mark 13:16 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ), men and women alike possessed a second garment, which served as a protection against inclement weather by day and as a covering by night ( Exodus 22:26 f.). The two are sharply distinguished in the familiar saying of Jesus: ‘If any man sue thee at the law and take away thy coat ( chitôn ), let him have thy cloke ( himation ) also’ ( Matthew 5:40 ).
( a ) The commonest name for this upper garment in OT is simlah or salmah . The simlah was almost certainly a large rectangular piece of cloth, in most cases of wool, in more special cases of linen. It was thus the exact counterpart of the himation of the Greeks, which we have seen to be its NT name, and the pallium of the Romans. Like them, it belonged not to the class of endumata or garments ‘put on,’ as the tunic, but to the periblemata or garments ‘wrapped round’ the body.
Since this view is at variance with that of acknowledged authorities on the subject (Nowack, Benzinger, Mackie in art. ‘Dress’ in Hastings’ DB [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] i. 625), who identify the simlah with the modern ‘aba , the coarse loose overcoat of the modern Syrian peasantry, the grounds on which it is based may be here briefly set forth. (1) If the parallel passages, Exodus 22:26 f. and Deuteronomy 24:13; Deuteronomy 24:17 on the one hand, and Numbers 15:38 and Deuteronomy 22:12 on the other, are compared in the original, it will be found that three terms are used indiscriminately for the ordinary upper garment of the Hebrews, and, further, that this garment had four corners , to each of which a tassel had to be attached (see more fully Fringes) a detail which suggests a plain four-cornered plaid like the himation , not a made-up garment like the chitôn or the ‘aba . (2) The incident of the sick woman in Matthew 9:20 ff. and parallel passages, who reached forward in the crowd to touch the tassel of Jesus’ himation from behind , shows that the Jewish upper garment was still worn by being wrapped round the body, over the back from left to right, with one corner and its tassel falling over the left shoulder. (3) The shape of the simple oblong tallith or prayer-shawl of the modern Jews, with its four tassels, which is the direct descendant of the simlah and the more recent tallith of the Mishna, is in favour of the former having the shape now advocated. (4) The clear distinction in NT already referred to, between the two principal garments of the Jews, confirms the conclusion that the typical Jewish upper garment closely resembled, if it was not identical with, the garment known as the himation throughout the Greek-speaking world.
In our EV [Note: English Version.] the simlah is concealed from the English reader under a variety of renderings. Thus, to give but a few illustrations, it is the ‘ garment ’ with which Noah’s nakedness was covered in Genesis 9:23 , and the ‘ clothes ’ in which the Hebrews bound up their kneading-troughs ( Exodus 12:34 ); it is the ‘garment’ of Gideon in Judges 8:25 , and the ‘ raiment ’ of Ruth ( Ruth 3:3 ); just as the himation of NT is not only the ‘ cloke ’ of Matthew 5:40 , but the ‘clothes’ of Matthew 24:18 (but RV [Note: Revised Version.] ‘cloke’); the ‘garment’ of Mark 13:16 , and so on.
( b ) Another variety of upper garment, known as the me‘îl , is mentioned only in connexion with men of high social position or of the priestly order. It is the robe of Saul the skirt (lit. ‘corner’) of which was cut off by David ( 1 Samuel 24:4 f.) of Jonathan ( 1 Samuel 18:4 ), and of Ezra ( Ezra 9:3; Ezra 9:5 ), the little ‘coat’ of the boy-priest Samuel ( 1 Samuel 2:19 ), and his ‘mantle’ at a later stage ( 1 Samuel 15:27 ). RV [Note: Revised Version.] has ‘robe’ for me‘îl throughout. Wherein did the me‘îl differ from the simlah ? From its constant association with men of rank, we should expect it to be of a more elaborate and ornate description. The violet ‘robe of the ephod’ prescribed for the high priest ( Exodus 28:31 ff; Exodus 39:22 ff.) had ‘a hole for the head in the midst thereof, as it were the bole of a coat of mail,’ and was trimmed with an elaborate ball-and-bell fringe. Now on the black obelisk of Shalmaneser, the bearers of Jehu’s tribute, nobles of Samaria doubtless, are represented wearing over their tunics a similar fringed and sleeveless garment, open at the sides, and resembling, if not identical with, the upper garment of Assyrian kings and dignitaries of state, which may with some confidence be identified with the me‘îl . The latter, then, seems to have been a piece of cloth of superior material and workmanship, in the shape of a magnified chest-protector, worn over the tunic like a priest’s chasuble, and reaching almost to the ankles. It probably came to the Hebrews from Babylonia through the medium of the Canaanites, and survives to-day in the ‘little tallith’ or arba kanphoth of the Jews (see Fringes). By the time of Josephus, the high priest’s me‘îl had become a sleeveless and seamless upper tunic (Jos. [Note: Josephus.] Ant . III. vii. 4).
( c ) A third variety of upper garment, the ’addereth , appears to have been the distinctive garment of the prophets (see Zechariah 13:4 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ‘hairy mantle’). Elijah’s mantle , in particular, is always so named. The latter, according to the Gr. version of Kings, was made of sheepskin, with the wool outside (cf. 2 Kings 1:8 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] and Genesis 25:25 ‘hairy garment’). It may, however, have been of goats’ or camels’ hair, as in the case of John the Baptist ( Matthew 3:4 , Mark 1:6 ).
( d ) Among the products of the domestic loom was a fourth garment, the sâdîn ( Proverbs 31:24 ). From the Mishna we learn that it was a plain sheet of fine linen with tassels, which could be used as a light upper garment, as a curtain, and as a shroud. In this last respect it resembled the NT sindôn , the ‘linen cloth’ of Matthew 27:59 , Mark 15:46 RV [Note: Revised Version.] . It is probably as an upper garment of fine white linen for gala use (cf. Ecclesiastes 9:8 ) that the sâdîn is introduced in Judges 14:12 f. (AV [Note: Authorized Version.] ‘sheets,’ RV [Note: Revised Version.] ‘linen garments’) and Isaiah 3:23 .
( e ) Mention must also be made of the ‘scarlet robe’ ( chlamys ) in which Jesus was arrayed by the Roman soldiers ( Matthew 27:28; Matthew 27:31 ). It is the paludamentum or military cloak worn over their armour by the superior officers of the Roman army. The ‘ cloke ’ finally, which St. Paul left at Troas ( 2 Timothy 4:13 ) was the Roman pÅ“nula , a circular travelling cape. For the brooch or buckle by which an upper garment was sometimes fastened, see Ornaments, § 5 .
5. Headdress . ( a ) The Hebrews appear at first to have had no covering for the head, except on special occasions, such as war, when a leather helmet was worn (see Armour, 2 ( b )). At most a rope or cord served as a fillet, as may be inferred from 1 Kings 20:31 f., and as may be seen in the representations of Syrians on the monuments of Egypt. In cases of prolonged exposure to the sun, it is most probable that recourse would be had to a covering in the style of the modern keffiyeh , which protects not only the head but also the neck and shoulders. Jehu’s tribute-carriers, above mentioned, are depicted in a headgear resembling the familiar Phrygian cap. The best attested covering, however at least for the upper ranks of both sexes is the tsânîph (from a root signifying to ‘wind round’) or turban . It is the royal ‘ diadem ’ of Isaiah 62:3 , the ladies’ ‘ hood ’ of Isaiah 3:23 (RV [Note: Revised Version.] ‘turban’), and the ‘ mitre ’ of Zechariah 3:5 (RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ‘turban or diadem’). A kindred word is used for the high priest’s turban, the ‘mitre’ of Exodus 28:4 , etc., for which see Mitre. A turban is also implied in Ezekiel’s description of a lady’s headdress: ‘I have bound thee with a tire of fine linen’ ( Ezekiel 16:10 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ). The egg-shaped turban of the ordinary priests has been discussed under Bonnet (RV [Note: Revised Version.] ‘head-tires’). The ‘ hats ’ of Daniel 3:21 were probably a variety of the conical Babylonian headdress, although RV [Note: Revised Version.] gives ‘mantles.’ Antiochus Epiphanes, it is recorded, compelled the young Jewish nobles to wear the petasus , the low, broad-brimmed hat associated with Hermes ( 2Ma 4:12 , RV [Note: Revised Version.] ‘the Greek cap ’).
In NT times, as may be learned from the Mishna, many forms of headdress were in use. One was named the sûdâr , from the Lat. sudarium (a cloth for wiping off perspiration, sudor ), which is the napkin of John 11:44; John 20:7 , although there it appears as a kerchief or head-covering for the dead (cf. below, 8 ).
( b ) As regards the headdress of the female sex, we have seen that both sexes of the wealthier classes wore the tsânîph or turban. The female captives from Lachish wear over their tunics an upper garment, which covers the forehead and hair and falls down over the shoulders as far as the ankles. Whether this is the garment intended by any of the words rendered vail in AV [Note: Authorized Version.] , as that of Ruth, for example ( Ruth 3:15 , RV [Note: Revised Version.] ‘mantle’), or by the ‘ kerchiefs for the head’ of Ezekiel 13:18 RV [Note: Revised Version.] , it is impossible to say. The veil, however, with which Rebekah and Tamar covered themselves ( Genesis 24:65; Genesis 38:14 ), was more probably a large mantle in which the whole body could be wrapped, like the sâdîn of 4 ( d ) above. Indeed, it is impossible to draw a clear distinction in OT between the mantle and the veil. The only express mention of a face-veil is in the case of Moses ( Exodus 34:33 ).
6. Shoes and sandals . Within doors the Hebrews went barefoot. Out of doors it was customary to wear either sandals or shoes, mostly the former. The simplest form of sandal consisted of a plain sole of leather, bound to the feet by a leather thong, the ‘ shoelatchet ’ of Genesis 14:23 and the ‘ latchet ’ of Mark 1:7 etc. The Assyrians preferred a sandal fitted with a heel-cap, by which they are distinguished from Jehu’s attendants on the obelisk of Shalmaneser, who wear shoes completely covering the feet. In Ezekiel’s day ladies wore shoes of ‘sealskin’ ( Ezekiel 16:10 RV [Note: Revised Version.]; but see Badgers’ Skins). The laced boot of the soldier may be referred to in Isaiah 9:5 (see RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ). The sandals were removed not only in cases of mourning ( 2 Samuel 15:30 ) and of a visit to a friend, but also on entering a sacred precinct ( Exodus 3:5 , Joshua 5:15 ); the Jewish priests, accordingly, performed all their offices in the Temple barefoot.
7. It need hardly be said that the taste for ‘purple and fine linen’ was not peculiar to the days of Dives, as may be seen from the remarkable dress-list in Isaiah 3:18 ff. Richly embroidered garments are mentioned as early as the time of the Judges ( Judges 5:30 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ). King Josiah had an official who bore the title of ‘the keeper of the wardrobe’ ( 2 Kings 22:14 ). The ‘ change of raiment ,’ however, several times mentioned in OT, were not so many complete outfits, but special gala robes, for which one’s ordinary garments were ‘changed.’ In the East, such robes have continued a favourite form of gift and expression of esteem from sovereigns and other persons of high rank to the present day.
For what may be termed accessories of dress, see Ornaments, Seal, Staff.
8. A special interest must always attach to the question of the outward appearance of the Man of Nazareth, so far as it is associated with the dress He wore. This must have consisted of at least six separate articles, not five, as Edersheim states ( Life and Times of Jesus , i. 625). By the 1st cent. it had become usual to wear a linen shirt ( châlûk ) beneath the tunic (see 2 ( d ) above). In our Lord’s case this seems required by the mention of the upper garments ( himatia, i.e. mantle and tunic) which He laid aside before washing the disciples’ feet ( John 13:4 ). The tunic proper, we know, was ‘woven without seam’ throughout, and therefore fitted closely at the neck, with the usual short sleeves as above described. White linen was the favourite material for both shirt and tunic. Above the tunic was the linen girdle wound several times round the waist. On His feet were leather sandals ( Matthew 3:11 ). His upper garment, as has been shown, was of the customary oblong shape probably of white woollen cloth, as is suggested by the details of the Transfiguration narrative in Mark 9:3 with the four prescribed tassels at the corners (see above, 4 ( a )). To the form of His headdress we have no clue, but it may be regarded as certain the traditional artistic convention notwithstanding that no Jewish teacher of that period would appear in public with head uncovered. Probably a white linen ‘napkin’ ( sudarium ) was tied round the head as a simple turban, the ends falling down over the neck.
A. R. S. Kennedy.
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Hastings, James. Entry for 'Dress'. Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. https://www.studylight.org/dictionaries/eng/hdb/d/dress.html. 1909.
